IB · PSYCH HL

Psychology HL

Sociocultural approach — HL Paper 1

Name: ____________________Date: October 14, 2026

1.
A cross-cultural study compares conformity rates on a simple perceptual judgement task between participants from a collectivist culture and an individualist culture, finding higher conformity in the collectivist sample. (a) Identify the research design used, naming the type of comparison. (b) Suggest one cultural dimension, other than collectivism/individualism itself, that could explain the difference. (c) State one methodological challenge specific to comparing behaviour across two different cultures.
[4 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Identifies the design as a cross-cultural, quasi-experimental/comparative study.
- Suggests a valid alternative cultural dimension, such as power distance or tolerance for uncertainty.
- Briefly explains how the suggested dimension could plausibly produce the observed difference in conformity.
- States a valid methodological challenge, such as the risk that the task itself is not equally familiar or meaningful across both cultures, threatening the validity of the comparison.
Examiner tip: A cross-cultural methodological challenge should focus on whether the same measure genuinely means the same thing in both cultures, not just on sample size.
2.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “A cross-cultural study compares conformity rates on a simple perceptual judgement task between participants from a collectivist culture and an individualist culture, finding higher conformity in the collectivist sample. (a) Identify the research design used, naming the type of comparison. (b) Suggest one cultural dimension, other than collectivism/individualism itself, that could explain the difference. (c) State one methodological challenge specific to comparing behaviour across two different cultures.” Their response addresses only this point: “Identifies the design as a cross-cultural, quasi-experimental/comparative study.” Evaluate the response against the complete 4-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[4 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Identifies the design as a cross-cultural, quasi-experimental/comparative study.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Suggests a valid alternative cultural dimension, such as power distance or tolerance for uncertainty.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Briefly explains how the suggested dimension could plausibly produce the observed difference in conformity.
- Identifies the missing requirement: States a valid methodological challenge, such as the risk that the task itself is not equally familiar or meaningful across both cultures, threatening the validity of the comparison.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
3.
A study finds that individuals are more likely to help a stranger in an emergency when alone than when surrounded by several other bystanders. (a) Name this phenomenon. (b) Outline one cognitive explanation for why the presence of others reduces helping behaviour. (c) Outline one additional explanation, distinct from the one given in (b), for the same phenomenon.
[5 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Names the bystander effect.
- Outlines diffusion of responsibility as one explanation, where each bystander feels less personally responsible as the number of witnesses increases.
- Explains this in terms of the specific scenario, where responsibility for helping feels shared or diluted among bystanders.
- Outlines a second, distinct explanation, such as pluralistic ignorance or evaluation apprehension.
- Briefly distinguishes the second explanation from diffusion of responsibility, showing they operate through different mechanisms.
Examiner tip: Diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance are commonly confused; diffusion is about shared blame, while pluralistic ignorance is about misreading others' calm reactions as a signal that nothing is wrong.
4.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “A study finds that individuals are more likely to help a stranger in an emergency when alone than when surrounded by several other bystanders. (a) Name this phenomenon. (b) Outline one cognitive explanation for why the presence of others reduces helping behaviour. (c) Outline one additional explanation, distinct from the one given in (b), for the same phenomenon.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names the bystander effect.” Evaluate the response against the complete 5-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[5 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Names the bystander effect.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Outlines diffusion of responsibility as one explanation, where each bystander feels less personally responsible as the number of witnesses increases.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains this in terms of the specific scenario, where responsibility for helping feels shared or diluted among bystanders.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Outlines a second, distinct explanation, such as pluralistic ignorance or evaluation apprehension.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Briefly distinguishes the second explanation from diffusion of responsibility, showing they operate through different mechanisms.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
5.
Tajfel and colleagues randomly assigned participants to arbitrary, meaningless groups (based on a trivial criterion such as a coin toss) and found that participants still consistently allocated more rewards to members of their own group than to members of the other group. (a) Name the theory this classic study supports. (b) Explain the motivational process this theory proposes to explain the observed in-group favouritism.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Names social identity theory.
- Explains that part of a person's self-concept comes from their membership in social groups (their social identity).
- Explains that people are motivated to view their own group positively, and favouring the in-group over the out-group (even an arbitrary, meaningless one) boosts self-esteem by making the group, and therefore the self, appear more favourable.
Examiner tip: The 'minimal group paradigm' is powerful evidence precisely because the groups have no real history, competition, or meaningful difference between them — yet favouritism still appears.
6.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Tajfel and colleagues randomly assigned participants to arbitrary, meaningless groups (based on a trivial criterion such as a coin toss) and found that participants still consistently allocated more rewards to members of their own group than to members of the other group. (a) Name the theory this classic study supports. (b) Explain the motivational process this theory proposes to explain the observed in-group favouritism.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names social identity theory.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Names social identity theory.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that part of a person's self-concept comes from their membership in social groups (their social identity).
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that people are motivated to view their own group positively, and favouring the in-group over the out-group (even an arbitrary, meaningless one) boosts self-esteem by making the group, and therefore the self, appear more favourable.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
7.
In Bandura's Bobo doll study, children who observed an adult model behaving aggressively towards an inflatable doll later imitated similar aggressive actions when given the opportunity to play with the doll themselves, even without being directly rewarded for aggression. (a) Name the theory this study is used as key evidence for. (b) Outline the cognitive processes this theory proposes must occur for a child to successfully learn and later reproduce the observed behaviour.
[4 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Names social learning theory.
- Outlines attention: the observer must pay attention to the model's behaviour.
- Outlines retention: the observer must be able to remember/mentally store the observed behaviour.
- Outlines reproduction and motivation: the observer must be physically capable of reproducing the behaviour, and must have a reason (motivation) to actually perform it, such as expecting a similar outcome to what the model received.
Examiner tip: Social learning theory explains behaviour acquired through observation without direct reinforcement of the observer themselves — reinforcement can be vicarious, based on what happened to the model.
8.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “In Bandura's Bobo doll study, children who observed an adult model behaving aggressively towards an inflatable doll later imitated similar aggressive actions when given the opportunity to play with the doll themselves, even without being directly rewarded for aggression. (a) Name the theory this study is used as key evidence for. (b) Outline the cognitive processes this theory proposes must occur for a child to successfully learn and later reproduce the observed behaviour.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names social learning theory.” Evaluate the response against the complete 4-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[4 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Names social learning theory.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Outlines attention: the observer must pay attention to the model's behaviour.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Outlines retention: the observer must be able to remember/mentally store the observed behaviour.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Outlines reproduction and motivation: the observer must be physically capable of reproducing the behaviour, and must have a reason (motivation) to actually perform it, such as expecting a similar outcome to what the model received.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
9.
In Asch's classic line-judgement study, a genuine participant was placed among confederates who unanimously gave an obviously wrong answer to a simple perceptual task. Around a third of all responses given by genuine participants conformed to the incorrect majority answer, and about three-quarters of participants conformed at least once. (a) Identify the type of social influence primarily responsible for this conformity, given that the task had an objectively correct answer. (b) Explain why conformity dropped sharply in a variation of the study where just one confederate gave the correct answer, breaking the unanimous majority.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Identifies normative social influence, since the task had an objectively obvious correct answer, meaning participants conformed to fit in/avoid social disapproval rather than because they were genuinely uncertain about the correct answer.
- Explains that having even one dissenting confederate breaks the appearance of unanimous social pressure.
- Explains that this gives the genuine participant social support/validation for giving the correct answer, greatly reducing the fear of standing alone against the group and therefore reducing conformity.
Examiner tip: Asch's dissenter variation is key evidence that conformity here was driven by normative pressure (fitting in), not informational uncertainty — breaking unanimity, not correcting the task's difficulty, is what reduced conformity.
10.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “In Asch's classic line-judgement study, a genuine participant was placed among confederates who unanimously gave an obviously wrong answer to a simple perceptual task. Around a third of all responses given by genuine participants conformed to the incorrect majority answer, and about three-quarters of participants conformed at least once. (a) Identify the type of social influence primarily responsible for this conformity, given that the task had an objectively correct answer. (b) Explain why conformity dropped sharply in a variation of the study where just one confederate gave the correct answer, breaking the unanimous majority.” Their response addresses only this point: “Identifies normative social influence, since the task had an objectively obvious correct answer, meaning participants conformed to fit in/avoid social disapproval rather than because they were genuinely uncertain about the correct answer.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Identifies normative social influence, since the task had an objectively obvious correct answer, meaning participants conformed to fit in/avoid social disapproval rather than because they were genuinely uncertain about the correct answer.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that having even one dissenting confederate breaks the appearance of unanimous social pressure.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that this gives the genuine participant social support/validation for giving the correct answer, greatly reducing the fear of standing alone against the group and therefore reducing conformity.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
11.
In Milgram's obedience study, participants were instructed by an authority figure (the experimenter) to administer what they believed were increasingly painful electric shocks to another person. A majority of participants continued to the maximum, clearly dangerous voltage level. (a) State the approximate proportion of participants who obeyed to the maximum level in the original study. (b) Suggest one situational factor from the study that helps explain this high rate of obedience. (c) State one major ethical concern this study raises.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- States that approximately 65% of participants obeyed to the maximum voltage level.
- Suggests a valid situational factor, such as the study being conducted at a prestigious institution (Yale University), the experimenter's use of firm verbal prods, or the gradual, incremental nature of the shock increases making it hard to identify a clear point to refuse.
- States a valid ethical concern, such as deception about the true purpose of the study, or the significant psychological distress and lack of full protection from harm experienced by participants.
Examiner tip: Milgram's situational explanations (setting, gradual commitment, proximity of authority) are central to why the study is considered powerful evidence that obedience is shaped more by situation than by individual personality.
12.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “In Milgram's obedience study, participants were instructed by an authority figure (the experimenter) to administer what they believed were increasingly painful electric shocks to another person. A majority of participants continued to the maximum, clearly dangerous voltage level. (a) State the approximate proportion of participants who obeyed to the maximum level in the original study. (b) Suggest one situational factor from the study that helps explain this high rate of obedience. (c) State one major ethical concern this study raises.” Their response addresses only this point: “States that approximately 65% of participants obeyed to the maximum voltage level.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: States that approximately 65% of participants obeyed to the maximum voltage level.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Suggests a valid situational factor, such as the study being conducted at a prestigious institution (Yale University), the experimenter's use of firm verbal prods, or the gradual, incremental nature of the shock increases making it hard to identify a clear point to refuse.
- Identifies the missing requirement: States a valid ethical concern, such as deception about the true purpose of the study, or the significant psychological distress and lack of full protection from harm experienced by participants.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
13.
Hamilton and Gifford found that participants exposed to more information about a majority group than a minority group tended to associate rare, undesirable behaviours disproportionately with the minority group, even when the actual proportion of undesirable behaviour was statistically identical in both groups. (a) Name the cognitive phenomenon this demonstrates. (b) Explain how this phenomenon can contribute to the formation of negative stereotypes about minority groups, even without any real difference in behaviour between groups.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Names illusory correlation.
- Explains that both rare group membership (minority) and rare behaviour (undesirable acts) are individually distinctive/salient, and their co-occurrence stands out and is remembered more than it should be, statistically.
- Explains that this leads observers to overestimate how often the minority group engages in the undesirable behaviour, creating and reinforcing a negative stereotype based on a statistical illusion rather than a genuine behavioural difference.
Examiner tip: Illusory correlation shows stereotypes can form from purely cognitive information-processing biases, without any need for real group differences, prejudice, or personal contact with the minority group.
14.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Hamilton and Gifford found that participants exposed to more information about a majority group than a minority group tended to associate rare, undesirable behaviours disproportionately with the minority group, even when the actual proportion of undesirable behaviour was statistically identical in both groups. (a) Name the cognitive phenomenon this demonstrates. (b) Explain how this phenomenon can contribute to the formation of negative stereotypes about minority groups, even without any real difference in behaviour between groups.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names illusory correlation.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Names illusory correlation.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that both rare group membership (minority) and rare behaviour (undesirable acts) are individually distinctive/salient, and their co-occurrence stands out and is remembered more than it should be, statistically.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that this leads observers to overestimate how often the minority group engages in the undesirable behaviour, creating and reinforcing a negative stereotype based on a statistical illusion rather than a genuine behavioural difference.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
15.
Steele and Aronson found that Black American students performed significantly worse on a difficult verbal test when it was described as diagnostic of intellectual ability, compared with when the identical test was described as not measuring ability, while White students' performance did not differ between the two framings. (a) Name the phenomenon this study demonstrates. (b) Explain the proposed psychological mechanism through which awareness of a negative stereotype about one's group can itself impair performance.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Names stereotype threat.
- Explains that being reminded of a negative stereotype about one's group creates additional anxiety and cognitive load, as part of mental resources are diverted towards monitoring performance and worrying about confirming the stereotype.
- Explains that this diverted attention and increased physiological arousal directly impairs performance on the difficult task itself, ironically helping to fulfil the very stereotype the person feared confirming.
Examiner tip: Stereotype threat is a situational explanation for group performance gaps: simply changing how a test is framed (without changing its content) altered performance, showing the gap is not fixed or purely due to ability.
16.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Steele and Aronson found that Black American students performed significantly worse on a difficult verbal test when it was described as diagnostic of intellectual ability, compared with when the identical test was described as not measuring ability, while White students' performance did not differ between the two framings. (a) Name the phenomenon this study demonstrates. (b) Explain the proposed psychological mechanism through which awareness of a negative stereotype about one's group can itself impair performance.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names stereotype threat.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Names stereotype threat.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that being reminded of a negative stereotype about one's group creates additional anxiety and cognitive load, as part of mental resources are diverted towards monitoring performance and worrying about confirming the stereotype.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that this diverted attention and increased physiological arousal directly impairs performance on the difficult task itself, ironically helping to fulfil the very stereotype the person feared confirming.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
17.
A child born in one country to parents from a different cultural background gradually absorbs the norms, values, and behaviours of their birth country's culture simply by growing up surrounded by it. Years later, as an adult, they move permanently to a new country with a very different culture and must consciously learn and adjust to its different social norms. (a) Identify which of these two processes is enculturation and which is acculturation. (b) State one key difference between the two processes, other than the age at which they typically occur.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Identifies the childhood absorption of the birth culture as enculturation.
- Identifies the adult adjustment to a new culture as acculturation.
- States a valid key difference, such as enculturation typically being a largely unconscious, gradual process absorbed without deliberate effort, while acculturation typically requires more conscious, effortful adjustment, often involving some degree of stress or identity negotiation between two cultures.
Examiner tip: Enculturation is 'growing up into' one's original culture; acculturation is adapting to a new, different culture, usually later in life and with noticeably more conscious effort.
18.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “A child born in one country to parents from a different cultural background gradually absorbs the norms, values, and behaviours of their birth country's culture simply by growing up surrounded by it. Years later, as an adult, they move permanently to a new country with a very different culture and must consciously learn and adjust to its different social norms. (a) Identify which of these two processes is enculturation and which is acculturation. (b) State one key difference between the two processes, other than the age at which they typically occur.” Their response addresses only this point: “Identifies the childhood absorption of the birth culture as enculturation.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Identifies the childhood absorption of the birth culture as enculturation.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Identifies the adult adjustment to a new culture as acculturation.
- Identifies the missing requirement: States a valid key difference, such as enculturation typically being a largely unconscious, gradual process absorbed without deliberate effort, while acculturation typically requires more conscious, effortful adjustment, often involving some degree of stress or identity negotiation between two cultures.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
19.
Comfortable conversational distance varies notably between cultures: in some cultures, standing very close while talking is considered normal and friendly, while in others, the same distance would be considered uncomfortably intrusive. (a) Identify the concept that explains this culturally specific, learned expectation about appropriate behaviour. (b) Explain what is likely to happen, in terms of emotional reaction, when a person from one such culture unknowingly violates the other culture's expectation.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Identifies this as a cultural norm (a learned, shared rule about appropriate behaviour specific to a given culture).
- Explains that violating an unspoken cultural norm typically produces discomfort, awkwardness, or even mild distress in both parties, since the violation disrupts an expectation both are normally unaware of holding until it is broken.
- Explains that neither party may be able to consciously articulate why the interaction feels wrong, since cultural norms typically operate below full conscious awareness.
Examiner tip: Cultural norms are powerful precisely because they are usually implicit and only become noticeable once violated — this is why cross-cultural misunderstandings often feel confusing rather than clearly explainable at the time.
20.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Comfortable conversational distance varies notably between cultures: in some cultures, standing very close while talking is considered normal and friendly, while in others, the same distance would be considered uncomfortably intrusive. (a) Identify the concept that explains this culturally specific, learned expectation about appropriate behaviour. (b) Explain what is likely to happen, in terms of emotional reaction, when a person from one such culture unknowingly violates the other culture's expectation.” Their response addresses only this point: “Identifies this as a cultural norm (a learned, shared rule about appropriate behaviour specific to a given culture).” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Identifies this as a cultural norm (a learned, shared rule about appropriate behaviour specific to a given culture).
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that violating an unspoken cultural norm typically produces discomfort, awkwardness, or even mild distress in both parties, since the violation disrupts an expectation both are normally unaware of holding until it is broken.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that neither party may be able to consciously articulate why the interaction feels wrong, since cultural norms typically operate below full conscious awareness.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
21.
Markus and Kitayama propose that people from individualist cultures tend to hold an 'independent' self-construal, defining themselves through their own unique internal traits and achievements, while people from collectivist cultures tend to hold an 'interdependent' self-construal, defining themselves largely through their relationships and roles within their social group. (a) Suggest one way this difference could affect how a person from each type of culture would describe themselves when asked 'Who are you?'. (b) Explain one methodological challenge in reliably measuring something as abstract as self-construal across different cultures.
[2 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Suggests that a person with an independent self-construal might describe themselves using personal traits or achievements (e.g., 'I am ambitious and creative'), while a person with an interdependent self-construal might describe themselves using relationships or roles (e.g., 'I am a daughter and a member of my community').
- Explains a valid methodological challenge, such as a self-report questionnaire measuring self-construal potentially having different meanings or connotations for its specific wording across languages and cultures, threatening the validity of direct cross-cultural comparison.
Examiner tip: Whenever a study compares an abstract psychological construct across cultures using a translated questionnaire, always consider whether the translation genuinely preserves the original meaning (translation/conceptual equivalence).
22.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Markus and Kitayama propose that people from individualist cultures tend to hold an 'independent' self-construal, defining themselves through their own unique internal traits and achievements, while people from collectivist cultures tend to hold an 'interdependent' self-construal, defining themselves largely through their relationships and roles within their social group. (a) Suggest one way this difference could affect how a person from each type of culture would describe themselves when asked 'Who are you?'. (b) Explain one methodological challenge in reliably measuring something as abstract as self-construal across different cultures.” Their response addresses only this point: “Suggests that a person with an independent self-construal might describe themselves using personal traits or achievements (e.g., 'I am ambitious and creative'), while a person with an interdependent self-construal might describe themselves using relationships or roles (e.g., 'I am a daughter and a member of my community').” Evaluate the response against the complete 2-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[2 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Suggests that a person with an independent self-construal might describe themselves using personal traits or achievements (e.g., 'I am ambitious and creative'), while a person with an interdependent self-construal might describe themselves using relationships or roles (e.g., 'I am a daughter and a member of my community').
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains a valid methodological challenge, such as a self-report questionnaire measuring self-construal potentially having different meanings or connotations for its specific wording across languages and cultures, threatening the validity of direct cross-cultural comparison.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
23.
Humans automatically and rapidly sort other people into social categories (such as by age, gender, or group membership) upon meeting them, often without deliberate effort. (a) Suggest one cognitive benefit of this automatic social categorisation process for everyday functioning. (b) Explain one cost of this same process for how individuals within an out-group tend to be perceived.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Suggests a valid cognitive benefit, such as cognitive economy: categorisation lets the brain quickly apply existing general knowledge about a category to a new individual, reducing the mental effort needed to process every new person from scratch.
- Explains that this same efficient shortcut can lead to out-group homogeneity: perceiving members of an out-group as more similar to each other ('they're all the same') than members of one's own in-group, who are seen as more individually varied.
- Explains that this can facilitate stereotyping, since one general trait or belief can then be applied to any perceived member of the out-group category.
Examiner tip: Social categorisation is a genuinely useful, efficient cognitive process in general — its costs (stereotyping, out-group homogeneity) are a side effect of that same efficiency, not evidence the process itself is inherently malicious.
24.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Humans automatically and rapidly sort other people into social categories (such as by age, gender, or group membership) upon meeting them, often without deliberate effort. (a) Suggest one cognitive benefit of this automatic social categorisation process for everyday functioning. (b) Explain one cost of this same process for how individuals within an out-group tend to be perceived.” Their response addresses only this point: “Suggests a valid cognitive benefit, such as cognitive economy: categorisation lets the brain quickly apply existing general knowledge about a category to a new individual, reducing the mental effort needed to process every new person from scratch.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Suggests a valid cognitive benefit, such as cognitive economy: categorisation lets the brain quickly apply existing general knowledge about a category to a new individual, reducing the mental effort needed to process every new person from scratch.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that this same efficient shortcut can lead to out-group homogeneity: perceiving members of an out-group as more similar to each other ('they're all the same') than members of one's own in-group, who are seen as more individually varied.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that this can facilitate stereotyping, since one general trait or belief can then be applied to any perceived member of the out-group category.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
25.
Sherif's Robbers Cave study placed boys into two separate groups at a summer camp and found that introducing a series of competitions over limited, desirable prizes led to hostility and conflict between the two groups. (a) Name the theory this study is used as evidence for. (b) State what this theory proposes is the underlying cause of intergroup conflict.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Names realistic conflict theory.
- States that the theory proposes intergroup conflict arises from real, direct competition between groups over limited, desirable resources.
- Notes that this contrasts with social identity theory, in which in-group favouritism and conflict can arise even without any real competition over resources.
Examiner tip: Realistic conflict theory (real competition over resources) and social identity theory (mere categorisation is enough) are often compared and contrasted as two distinct explanations for intergroup hostility.
26.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Sherif's Robbers Cave study placed boys into two separate groups at a summer camp and found that introducing a series of competitions over limited, desirable prizes led to hostility and conflict between the two groups. (a) Name the theory this study is used as evidence for. (b) State what this theory proposes is the underlying cause of intergroup conflict.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names realistic conflict theory.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Names realistic conflict theory.
- Identifies the missing requirement: States that the theory proposes intergroup conflict arises from real, direct competition between groups over limited, desirable resources.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Notes that this contrasts with social identity theory, in which in-group favouritism and conflict can arise even without any real competition over resources.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
27.
Milgram's obedience research is widely praised for its important findings but also widely criticised on ethical grounds. (a) Beyond the deception involved, identify one further specific ethical concern relating to the psychological state participants were left in during the study itself. (b) Suggest how modern research ethics committees would most likely respond if this exact study were proposed today.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Identifies a valid concern, such as the significant psychological distress (visible signs of extreme stress, sweating, trembling) participants experienced while believing they were harming another person, without adequate protection from this harm during the study.
- Suggests that a modern ethics committee would very likely reject or require substantial modification of this exact study, since it fails contemporary standards for protection from psychological harm and fully informed consent.
- Notes that a full debriefing after the study, while important and actually conducted by Milgram, does not retroactively remove the ethical problem of allowing severe distress to occur during the study itself.
Examiner tip: A debriefing after the fact does not excuse harm caused during a study — modern ethics requires anticipating and preventing serious psychological harm before it happens, not just addressing it afterwards.
28.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Milgram's obedience research is widely praised for its important findings but also widely criticised on ethical grounds. (a) Beyond the deception involved, identify one further specific ethical concern relating to the psychological state participants were left in during the study itself. (b) Suggest how modern research ethics committees would most likely respond if this exact study were proposed today.” Their response addresses only this point: “Identifies a valid concern, such as the significant psychological distress (visible signs of extreme stress, sweating, trembling) participants experienced while believing they were harming another person, without adequate protection from this harm during the study.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Identifies a valid concern, such as the significant psychological distress (visible signs of extreme stress, sweating, trembling) participants experienced while believing they were harming another person, without adequate protection from this harm during the study.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Suggests that a modern ethics committee would very likely reject or require substantial modification of this exact study, since it fails contemporary standards for protection from psychological harm and fully informed consent.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Notes that a full debriefing after the study, while important and actually conducted by Milgram, does not retroactively remove the ethical problem of allowing severe distress to occur during the study itself.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
29.
A teacher unknowingly holds a negative stereotype-based expectation that a particular student will perform poorly, and subsequently (without realising it) gives that student less encouragement and fewer opportunities to answer questions in class. Over the school year, the student's performance declines. (a) Identify the phenomenon this scenario illustrates. (b) Explain the process by which the teacher's initial, inaccurate belief became a reality.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Identifies the self-fulfilling prophecy.
- Explains that the teacher's stereotype-based expectation unconsciously altered their own behaviour towards the student (less encouragement, fewer opportunities), even though the teacher did not intend or realise this.
- Explains that this changed treatment then genuinely reduced the student's actual opportunities to practise and demonstrate ability, causing their real performance to decline in a way that appeared to confirm the original, inaccurate stereotype.
Examiner tip: The self-fulfilling prophecy shows how a stereotype can become 'true' not because it was accurate to begin with, but because acting on the belief changes the treated person's actual outcomes.
30.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “A teacher unknowingly holds a negative stereotype-based expectation that a particular student will perform poorly, and subsequently (without realising it) gives that student less encouragement and fewer opportunities to answer questions in class. Over the school year, the student's performance declines. (a) Identify the phenomenon this scenario illustrates. (b) Explain the process by which the teacher's initial, inaccurate belief became a reality.” Their response addresses only this point: “Identifies the self-fulfilling prophecy.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Identifies the self-fulfilling prophecy.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that the teacher's stereotype-based expectation unconsciously altered their own behaviour towards the student (less encouragement, fewer opportunities), even though the teacher did not intend or realise this.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that this changed treatment then genuinely reduced the student's actual opportunities to practise and demonstrate ability, causing their real performance to decline in a way that appeared to confirm the original, inaccurate stereotype.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.