IB · PSYCH SL

Psychology SL

Biological and cognitive approaches — Paper 1

Name: ____________________Date: October 14, 2026

1.
A researcher studies the role of the amygdala in processing fear by comparing brain activity, using fMRI, in participants shown fearful faces versus neutral faces. (a) Identify the research method used. (b) State one strength of using fMRI in this type of study. (c) State one limitation of using fMRI in this type of study.
[4 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Identifies the method as a (quasi-)experiment using brain imaging to compare conditions.
- States a valid strength, such as fMRI providing objective, quantifiable measures of brain activity localised to specific regions.
- States a valid limitation, such as fMRI showing correlated activity rather than proving the amygdala causes the fear response, or the artificial laboratory setting reducing ecological validity.
- Briefly links the stated limitation back to the specific claim about the amygdala's role, rather than a generic limitation of the method.
Examiner tip: A strength or limitation earns full credit only when it is tied to this specific study's aim, not stated as a generic fact about the method.
2.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “A researcher studies the role of the amygdala in processing fear by comparing brain activity, using fMRI, in participants shown fearful faces versus neutral faces. (a) Identify the research method used. (b) State one strength of using fMRI in this type of study. (c) State one limitation of using fMRI in this type of study.” Their response addresses only this point: “Identifies the method as a (quasi-)experiment using brain imaging to compare conditions.” Evaluate the response against the complete 4-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[4 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Identifies the method as a (quasi-)experiment using brain imaging to compare conditions.
- Identifies the missing requirement: States a valid strength, such as fMRI providing objective, quantifiable measures of brain activity localised to specific regions.
- Identifies the missing requirement: States a valid limitation, such as fMRI showing correlated activity rather than proving the amygdala causes the fear response, or the artificial laboratory setting reducing ecological validity.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Briefly links the stated limitation back to the specific claim about the amygdala's role, rather than a generic limitation of the method.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
3.
A study on memory shows participants a list of 15 words and later asks them to recall as many as possible. Researchers find that words at the beginning and end of the list are recalled more often than words in the middle. (a) Name the two effects being demonstrated. (b) Using the multi-store model of memory, explain why words at the start of the list are remembered well. (c) Using the same model, explain why words at the end of the list are remembered well.
[5 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Names the primacy effect for the beginning of the list.
- Names the recency effect for the end of the list.
- Explains that early words receive more rehearsal, transferring them into long-term memory.
- Explains that end-of-list words are still held in short-term/working memory at the time of recall.
- Notes that middle words receive less rehearsal and have already been displaced from short-term memory, explaining the lower recall.
Examiner tip: Primacy is explained through long-term memory transfer; recency is explained through short-term memory still being active — keep the two explanations distinct.
4.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “A study on memory shows participants a list of 15 words and later asks them to recall as many as possible. Researchers find that words at the beginning and end of the list are recalled more often than words in the middle. (a) Name the two effects being demonstrated. (b) Using the multi-store model of memory, explain why words at the start of the list are remembered well. (c) Using the same model, explain why words at the end of the list are remembered well.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names the primacy effect for the beginning of the list.” Evaluate the response against the complete 5-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[5 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Names the primacy effect for the beginning of the list.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Names the recency effect for the end of the list.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that early words receive more rehearsal, transferring them into long-term memory.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that end-of-list words are still held in short-term/working memory at the time of recall.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Notes that middle words receive less rehearsal and have already been displaced from short-term memory, explaining the lower recall.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
5.
A study asks participants to solve problems either alone or while another person is present. Researchers observe that performance on simple, well-practised tasks improves with an audience, while performance on complex, unfamiliar tasks worsens. (a) Name the phenomenon that explains both findings. (b) State the underlying psychological process proposed to explain why an audience has this dual effect.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Names social facilitation, with social inhibition/impairment as its counterpart.
- States that the presence of others increases physiological arousal.
- States that increased arousal boosts performance on well-learned/dominant responses but disrupts performance on complex/unfamiliar responses.
Examiner tip: Social facilitation and social inhibition are two sides of the same arousal-based explanation, not two separate unrelated effects.
6.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “A study asks participants to solve problems either alone or while another person is present. Researchers observe that performance on simple, well-practised tasks improves with an audience, while performance on complex, unfamiliar tasks worsens. (a) Name the phenomenon that explains both findings. (b) State the underlying psychological process proposed to explain why an audience has this dual effect.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names social facilitation, with social inhibition/impairment as its counterpart.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Names social facilitation, with social inhibition/impairment as its counterpart.
- Identifies the missing requirement: States that the presence of others increases physiological arousal.
- Identifies the missing requirement: States that increased arousal boosts performance on well-learned/dominant responses but disrupts performance on complex/unfamiliar responses.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
7.
Research finds that patients with clinical depression often show lower levels of serotonin activity than non-depressed individuals, and that drugs increasing serotonin availability (SSRIs) relieve symptoms for many patients. (a) State the principle of the biological approach that this research illustrates. (b) Explain why this evidence alone cannot prove that low serotonin causes depression.
[4 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- States the principle that there are biological correlates (physiological/chemical bases) of behaviour, here specifically a neurotransmitter correlate of a mood disorder.
- Explains that this is correlational evidence: low serotonin and depression occur together, but this does not show which one causes the other, or whether both are caused by a third factor.
- Explains that depression itself could plausibly alter serotonin activity (reverse causality), rather than low serotonin necessarily causing depression.
- Notes that SSRIs relieving symptoms in many, but not all, patients also suggests other biological or psychological factors are involved, not serotonin alone.
Examiner tip: A drug relieving symptoms by targeting a system is suggestive evidence, not proof, that the system's imbalance caused the disorder in the first place — this is a common critique of purely biological explanations.
8.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Research finds that patients with clinical depression often show lower levels of serotonin activity than non-depressed individuals, and that drugs increasing serotonin availability (SSRIs) relieve symptoms for many patients. (a) State the principle of the biological approach that this research illustrates. (b) Explain why this evidence alone cannot prove that low serotonin causes depression.” Their response addresses only this point: “States the principle that there are biological correlates (physiological/chemical bases) of behaviour, here specifically a neurotransmitter correlate of a mood disorder.” Evaluate the response against the complete 4-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[4 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: States the principle that there are biological correlates (physiological/chemical bases) of behaviour, here specifically a neurotransmitter correlate of a mood disorder.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that this is correlational evidence: low serotonin and depression occur together, but this does not show which one causes the other, or whether both are caused by a third factor.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that depression itself could plausibly alter serotonin activity (reverse causality), rather than low serotonin necessarily causing depression.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Notes that SSRIs relieving symptoms in many, but not all, patients also suggests other biological or psychological factors are involved, not serotonin alone.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
9.
When an individual perceives a stressful situation, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is activated, eventually causing the adrenal glands to release cortisol into the bloodstream. (a) Outline the role of cortisol in the body's stress response. (b) Suggest one limitation of drawing general conclusions about 'the' stress response from studies of cortisol levels, given individual differences between people.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Outlines that cortisol mobilises energy reserves (e.g., increasing blood glucose) and temporarily suppresses non-essential functions such as digestion and immune response, preparing the body to cope with the stressor.
- States that cortisol is part of a slower, hormonal stress response, complementing the faster nervous-system-based fight-or-flight response.
- Suggests that individuals differ in baseline cortisol levels and in how reactive their HPA axis is, so a single cortisol measurement cannot be generalised as representing a universal stress response for everyone.
Examiner tip: The HPA axis (hormonal, slower, sustained) and the sympathetic nervous system (fast, adrenaline-driven fight-or-flight) are two distinct but complementary biological stress systems — do not merge them into one description.
10.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “When an individual perceives a stressful situation, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is activated, eventually causing the adrenal glands to release cortisol into the bloodstream. (a) Outline the role of cortisol in the body's stress response. (b) Suggest one limitation of drawing general conclusions about 'the' stress response from studies of cortisol levels, given individual differences between people.” Their response addresses only this point: “Outlines that cortisol mobilises energy reserves (e.g., increasing blood glucose) and temporarily suppresses non-essential functions such as digestion and immune response, preparing the body to cope with the stressor.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Outlines that cortisol mobilises energy reserves (e.g., increasing blood glucose) and temporarily suppresses non-essential functions such as digestion and immune response, preparing the body to cope with the stressor.
- Identifies the missing requirement: States that cortisol is part of a slower, hormonal stress response, complementing the faster nervous-system-based fight-or-flight response.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Suggests that individuals differ in baseline cortisol levels and in how reactive their HPA axis is, so a single cortisol measurement cannot be generalised as representing a universal stress response for everyone.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
11.
Patient 'Tan', studied by Paul Broca, lost the ability to produce fluent speech after damage to a specific area of the left frontal lobe, while still being able to understand language. This and similar cases led to that region being named after Broca. (a) State what this case study is typically used as evidence for. (b) Identify one brain-imaging technique that could be used with living patients today to study brain-language links without waiting for a post-mortem examination. (c) Suggest one limitation of relying on single case studies like this one to draw general conclusions about brain function.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- States that this case is typically used as evidence for the localisation of brain function, specifically that speech production is localised to a specific region (Broca's area).
- Identifies a valid modern imaging technique, such as fMRI or PET, that can show brain activity in living patients.
- Suggests a valid limitation, such as brain damage from a single patient's injury rarely being neatly confined to one function or region, making it hard to generalise findings to how the brain typically works in undamaged individuals.
Examiner tip: Case studies of brain damage provided the earliest evidence for localisation of function, but modern neuroimaging allows researchers to study these links directly and non-invasively in healthy, living participants.
12.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Patient 'Tan', studied by Paul Broca, lost the ability to produce fluent speech after damage to a specific area of the left frontal lobe, while still being able to understand language. This and similar cases led to that region being named after Broca. (a) State what this case study is typically used as evidence for. (b) Identify one brain-imaging technique that could be used with living patients today to study brain-language links without waiting for a post-mortem examination. (c) Suggest one limitation of relying on single case studies like this one to draw general conclusions about brain function.” Their response addresses only this point: “States that this case is typically used as evidence for the localisation of brain function, specifically that speech production is localised to a specific region (Broca's area).” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: States that this case is typically used as evidence for the localisation of brain function, specifically that speech production is localised to a specific region (Broca's area).
- Identifies the missing requirement: Identifies a valid modern imaging technique, such as fMRI or PET, that can show brain activity in living patients.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Suggests a valid limitation, such as brain damage from a single patient's injury rarely being neatly confined to one function or region, making it hard to generalise findings to how the brain typically works in undamaged individuals.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
13.
Maguire et al. studied London taxi drivers, who must memorise the complex layout of thousands of streets, and found that experienced drivers had a significantly larger posterior hippocampus than non-taxi-driver controls, with size correlating with years of driving experience. (a) Identify the concept this finding provides evidence for. (b) Explain why the correlation with years of experience strengthens the researchers' interpretation of the finding.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Identifies neuroplasticity: the brain's ability to physically change its structure in response to experience/environmental demands.
- Explains that the correlation between hippocampus size and years of driving experience suggests a dose-response relationship, where more spatial-memory demand over time is associated with a proportionally larger change in brain structure.
- Explains that this makes it more plausible that driving experience caused the structural change (rather than people with naturally larger hippocampi simply choosing to become taxi drivers), though it still does not fully rule out this alternative explanation.
Examiner tip: A dose-response pattern (more of X associated with more of Y) is stronger evidence for a causal relationship than a simple two-group comparison alone, though it is still not definitive proof.
14.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Maguire et al. studied London taxi drivers, who must memorise the complex layout of thousands of streets, and found that experienced drivers had a significantly larger posterior hippocampus than non-taxi-driver controls, with size correlating with years of driving experience. (a) Identify the concept this finding provides evidence for. (b) Explain why the correlation with years of experience strengthens the researchers' interpretation of the finding.” Their response addresses only this point: “Identifies neuroplasticity: the brain's ability to physically change its structure in response to experience/environmental demands.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Identifies neuroplasticity: the brain's ability to physically change its structure in response to experience/environmental demands.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that the correlation between hippocampus size and years of driving experience suggests a dose-response relationship, where more spatial-memory demand over time is associated with a proportionally larger change in brain structure.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that this makes it more plausible that driving experience caused the structural change (rather than people with naturally larger hippocampi simply choosing to become taxi drivers), though it still does not fully rule out this alternative explanation.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
15.
Twin studies of schizophrenia commonly report a concordance rate of around 48% for identical (monozygotic) twins compared with around 17% for fraternal (dizygotic) twins. (a) Explain what this difference in concordance rates suggests about the role of genetics in schizophrenia. (b) Explain why a concordance rate of only 48%, rather than 100%, among identical twins (who share the same genes) shows that genetics cannot be the whole explanation. (c) State one assumption of the twin study method that, if false, would weaken this genetic interpretation.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Explains that the higher concordance in monozygotic twins (who share ~100% of their genes) than in dizygotic twins (who share ~50%) suggests a genetic contribution to schizophrenia.
- Explains that since identical twins share essentially all their genes, a 100% concordance rate would be expected if schizophrenia were purely genetically determined; the actual 48% rate shows that non-genetic (environmental) factors must also play a significant role.
- States the equal environments assumption: the assumption that monozygotic and dizygotic twins experience equally similar environments, which if false (e.g., if identical twins are treated more similarly by others) would mean the higher MZ concordance partly reflects shared environment, not just shared genes.
Examiner tip: Twin studies estimate heritability by comparing MZ and DZ concordance, but their genetic conclusions rest entirely on the equal environments assumption, which is a common and legitimate target for criticism.
16.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Twin studies of schizophrenia commonly report a concordance rate of around 48% for identical (monozygotic) twins compared with around 17% for fraternal (dizygotic) twins. (a) Explain what this difference in concordance rates suggests about the role of genetics in schizophrenia. (b) Explain why a concordance rate of only 48%, rather than 100%, among identical twins (who share the same genes) shows that genetics cannot be the whole explanation. (c) State one assumption of the twin study method that, if false, would weaken this genetic interpretation.” Their response addresses only this point: “Explains that the higher concordance in monozygotic twins (who share ~100% of their genes) than in dizygotic twins (who share ~50%) suggests a genetic contribution to schizophrenia.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Explains that the higher concordance in monozygotic twins (who share ~100% of their genes) than in dizygotic twins (who share ~50%) suggests a genetic contribution to schizophrenia.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that since identical twins share essentially all their genes, a 100% concordance rate would be expected if schizophrenia were purely genetically determined; the actual 48% rate shows that non-genetic (environmental) factors must also play a significant role.
- Identifies the missing requirement: States the equal environments assumption: the assumption that monozygotic and dizygotic twins experience equally similar environments, which if false (e.g., if identical twins are treated more similarly by others) would mean the higher MZ concordance partly reflects shared environment, not just shared genes.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
17.
A research team wants to study brain activity while a participant performs a task. They must choose between fMRI, which shows precisely where in the brain activity occurs but only captures changes over a few seconds, and EEG, which records changes in electrical activity in milliseconds but cannot precisely locate their source within the brain. (a) State which technique has better spatial resolution. (b) State which technique has better temporal resolution. (c) Suggest which technique would better suit a study of the precise timing of a very fast decision-making process.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- States that fMRI has better spatial resolution (more precise localisation).
- States that EEG has better temporal resolution (more precise timing).
- Suggests EEG for studying the precise timing of a very fast process, since millisecond-level timing matters more than pinpointing the exact brain region for this specific research question.
Examiner tip: There is always a trade-off between spatial and temporal resolution across brain-imaging techniques — choose the technique that matches what the specific research question actually needs to measure.
18.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “A research team wants to study brain activity while a participant performs a task. They must choose between fMRI, which shows precisely where in the brain activity occurs but only captures changes over a few seconds, and EEG, which records changes in electrical activity in milliseconds but cannot precisely locate their source within the brain. (a) State which technique has better spatial resolution. (b) State which technique has better temporal resolution. (c) Suggest which technique would better suit a study of the precise timing of a very fast decision-making process.” Their response addresses only this point: “States that fMRI has better spatial resolution (more precise localisation).” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: States that fMRI has better spatial resolution (more precise localisation).
- Identifies the missing requirement: States that EEG has better temporal resolution (more precise timing).
- Identifies the missing requirement: Suggests EEG for studying the precise timing of a very fast process, since millisecond-level timing matters more than pinpointing the exact brain region for this specific research question.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
19.
In Bartlett's 'War of the Ghosts' study, British participants read an unfamiliar Native American folk story and then recalled it repeatedly over time. Their recalled versions became shorter, more conventional, and altered to fit better with their own cultural expectations, while still feeling to them like accurate memories. (a) Name the theory of memory this study supports. (b) Explain what this theory suggests happens during memory recall, based on this study's findings.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Names schema theory (reconstructive memory).
- Explains that, according to this theory, memory is not a passive, accurate recording of an event, but an active process in which existing knowledge and cultural expectations (schemas) actively reconstruct and distort the memory each time it is recalled.
- Links this specifically to the study, where participants' cultural schemas caused the unfamiliar story to become progressively distorted towards a more familiar, conventional form, without participants noticing the change.
Examiner tip: Schema theory directly challenges the idea of memory as an accurate video recording — the fact that participants felt confident in their (distorted) memories is itself important evidence for reconstruction rather than accurate storage.
20.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “In Bartlett's 'War of the Ghosts' study, British participants read an unfamiliar Native American folk story and then recalled it repeatedly over time. Their recalled versions became shorter, more conventional, and altered to fit better with their own cultural expectations, while still feeling to them like accurate memories. (a) Name the theory of memory this study supports. (b) Explain what this theory suggests happens during memory recall, based on this study's findings.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names schema theory (reconstructive memory).” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Names schema theory (reconstructive memory).
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that, according to this theory, memory is not a passive, accurate recording of an event, but an active process in which existing knowledge and cultural expectations (schemas) actively reconstruct and distort the memory each time it is recalled.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Links this specifically to the study, where participants' cultural schemas caused the unfamiliar story to become progressively distorted towards a more familiar, conventional form, without participants noticing the change.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
21.
According to the dual process model, System 1 thinking is fast, automatic, and intuitive, while System 2 thinking is slow, effortful, and deliberate. (a) Identify which system is more likely being used when a person instantly recognises an angry facial expression. (b) Identify which system is more likely being used when a person carefully works through a complex maths problem step by step. (c) Explain one reason System 1 thinking, despite being fast and often useful, can lead to systematic errors in judgement.
[4 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Identifies System 1 for the instant recognition of the angry facial expression.
- Identifies System 2 for the careful, step-by-step maths problem.
- Explains that because System 1 relies on quick mental shortcuts (heuristics) rather than careful analysis, it can produce systematic cognitive biases, such as making a judgement based on how easily examples come to mind rather than actual statistical likelihood.
- Gives a specific, plausible example of such a bias (e.g., the availability heuristic or anchoring), showing how it arises from fast, intuitive processing rather than deliberate reasoning.
Examiner tip: System 1 and System 2 are not 'good' and 'bad' — System 1 is essential for fast survival-relevant judgements, but its speed is precisely what makes it prone to predictable biases that System 2 could correct given enough time and effort.
22.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “According to the dual process model, System 1 thinking is fast, automatic, and intuitive, while System 2 thinking is slow, effortful, and deliberate. (a) Identify which system is more likely being used when a person instantly recognises an angry facial expression. (b) Identify which system is more likely being used when a person carefully works through a complex maths problem step by step. (c) Explain one reason System 1 thinking, despite being fast and often useful, can lead to systematic errors in judgement.” Their response addresses only this point: “Identifies System 1 for the instant recognition of the angry facial expression.” Evaluate the response against the complete 4-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[4 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Identifies System 1 for the instant recognition of the angry facial expression.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Identifies System 2 for the careful, step-by-step maths problem.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that because System 1 relies on quick mental shortcuts (heuristics) rather than careful analysis, it can produce systematic cognitive biases, such as making a judgement based on how easily examples come to mind rather than actual statistical likelihood.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Gives a specific, plausible example of such a bias (e.g., the availability heuristic or anchoring), showing how it arises from fast, intuitive processing rather than deliberate reasoning.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
23.
A person estimates the likelihood of dying in a plane crash as much higher than the likelihood of dying in a car crash, even though car crashes are statistically far more common, because plane crashes receive dramatic, memorable media coverage. (a) Name the cognitive bias illustrated here. (b) Explain the underlying mental shortcut that produces this bias.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Names the availability heuristic (availability bias).
- Explains that people estimate the probability or frequency of an event based on how easily relevant examples come to mind, rather than on actual statistical data.
- Explains that vivid, dramatic, heavily reported events like plane crashes are more easily recalled than mundane, common events like car crashes, causing their likelihood to be overestimated.
Examiner tip: The availability heuristic explains why media coverage can badly distort public perception of real-world risk — vividness and frequency of exposure are not the same thing as actual statistical probability.
24.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “A person estimates the likelihood of dying in a plane crash as much higher than the likelihood of dying in a car crash, even though car crashes are statistically far more common, because plane crashes receive dramatic, memorable media coverage. (a) Name the cognitive bias illustrated here. (b) Explain the underlying mental shortcut that produces this bias.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names the availability heuristic (availability bias).” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Names the availability heuristic (availability bias).
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that people estimate the probability or frequency of an event based on how easily relevant examples come to mind, rather than on actual statistical data.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that vivid, dramatic, heavily reported events like plane crashes are more easily recalled than mundane, common events like car crashes, causing their likelihood to be overestimated.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
25.
In a classic study, Loftus and Palmer showed participants a film of a car accident and then asked how fast the cars were going when they 'smashed into' each other, versus asking a separate group how fast the cars were going when they 'hit' each other. Participants given the word 'smashed' estimated significantly higher speeds than those given 'hit'. (a) Identify the phenomenon this study demonstrates. (b) Explain the real-world implication of this finding for the legal system's reliance on eyewitness testimony.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Identifies the misinformation effect (the effect of leading questions on eyewitness memory).
- Explains that the specific wording of a question can subtly and unconsciously distort a witness's memory of an event, without the witness being aware that their recollection has changed.
- Explains that this implies eyewitness testimony, especially when obtained through leading or suggestive questioning by police or lawyers, may be less reliable than juries typically assume, and should be treated with caution as legal evidence.
Examiner tip: The misinformation effect is one of the most cited applications of cognitive psychology to real-world legal practice — always be ready to connect it to interview/interrogation technique reform.
26.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “In a classic study, Loftus and Palmer showed participants a film of a car accident and then asked how fast the cars were going when they 'smashed into' each other, versus asking a separate group how fast the cars were going when they 'hit' each other. Participants given the word 'smashed' estimated significantly higher speeds than those given 'hit'. (a) Identify the phenomenon this study demonstrates. (b) Explain the real-world implication of this finding for the legal system's reliance on eyewitness testimony.” Their response addresses only this point: “Identifies the misinformation effect (the effect of leading questions on eyewitness memory).” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Identifies the misinformation effect (the effect of leading questions on eyewitness memory).
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that the specific wording of a question can subtly and unconsciously distort a witness's memory of an event, without the witness being aware that their recollection has changed.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that this implies eyewitness testimony, especially when obtained through leading or suggestive questioning by police or lawyers, may be less reliable than juries typically assume, and should be treated with caution as legal evidence.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
27.
Many people report extremely vivid, detailed, and confident memories of exactly where they were and what they were doing when they first heard about a major shocking public event, sometimes called 'flashbulb memories'. (a) State one feature that makes flashbulb memories seem different from ordinary memories. (b) Explain why research suggests flashbulb memories are not actually as accurate as their vividness and the confidence people place in them would suggest.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- States that flashbulb memories feel unusually vivid, detailed, and are held with a strong sense of confidence in their accuracy, as if 'burned in' at the moment of the event.
- Explains that studies comparing people's flashbulb memories recorded shortly after an event with the same people's memories recorded years later often find significant inconsistencies and distortions, despite the person's confidence remaining high.
- Explains that this shows flashbulb memories are still subject to the normal reconstructive processes of memory over time, and that subjective confidence is not a reliable indicator of objective accuracy.
Examiner tip: The key finding about flashbulb memories is the mismatch between high confidence and only moderate actual accuracy — this dissociation is what makes them psychologically interesting.
28.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Many people report extremely vivid, detailed, and confident memories of exactly where they were and what they were doing when they first heard about a major shocking public event, sometimes called 'flashbulb memories'. (a) State one feature that makes flashbulb memories seem different from ordinary memories. (b) Explain why research suggests flashbulb memories are not actually as accurate as their vividness and the confidence people place in them would suggest.” Their response addresses only this point: “States that flashbulb memories feel unusually vivid, detailed, and are held with a strong sense of confidence in their accuracy, as if 'burned in' at the moment of the event.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: States that flashbulb memories feel unusually vivid, detailed, and are held with a strong sense of confidence in their accuracy, as if 'burned in' at the moment of the event.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that studies comparing people's flashbulb memories recorded shortly after an event with the same people's memories recorded years later often find significant inconsistencies and distortions, despite the person's confidence remaining high.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that this shows flashbulb memories are still subject to the normal reconstructive processes of memory over time, and that subjective confidence is not a reliable indicator of objective accuracy.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
29.
Epigenetics research shows that environmental factors, such as chronic stress, can chemically alter how genes are expressed without changing the underlying DNA sequence itself, and that some of these changes can even be passed on to offspring. (a) Explain what this finding suggests about the traditional 'nature versus nurture' debate. (b) Suggest one implication of epigenetic research for twin studies, which assume genetically identical twins remain biologically equivalent throughout life.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Explains that epigenetics shows genes and environment interact dynamically throughout life, rather than 'nature' (genes) and 'nurture' (environment) being separate, independent influences that simply add together.
- States that this means genetic potential and environmental experience cannot be neatly separated, since environmental experience can directly change how genes are expressed.
- Suggests that if identical twins' gene expression can diverge over time due to differing life experiences (epigenetic change), then treating them as fully biologically equivalent becomes progressively less accurate the older the twins get, which is a relevant limitation for interpreting twin study results.
Examiner tip: Epigenetics is strong evidence for an interactionist 'nature via nurture' view rather than a strict nature-versus-nurture split — genes set potentials that environment can switch on or off.
30.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Epigenetics research shows that environmental factors, such as chronic stress, can chemically alter how genes are expressed without changing the underlying DNA sequence itself, and that some of these changes can even be passed on to offspring. (a) Explain what this finding suggests about the traditional 'nature versus nurture' debate. (b) Suggest one implication of epigenetic research for twin studies, which assume genetically identical twins remain biologically equivalent throughout life.” Their response addresses only this point: “Explains that epigenetics shows genes and environment interact dynamically throughout life, rather than 'nature' (genes) and 'nurture' (environment) being separate, independent influences that simply add together.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Explains that epigenetics shows genes and environment interact dynamically throughout life, rather than 'nature' (genes) and 'nurture' (environment) being separate, independent influences that simply add together.
- Identifies the missing requirement: States that this means genetic potential and environmental experience cannot be neatly separated, since environmental experience can directly change how genes are expressed.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Suggests that if identical twins' gene expression can diverge over time due to differing life experiences (epigenetic change), then treating them as fully biologically equivalent becomes progressively less accurate the older the twins get, which is a relevant limitation for interpreting twin study results.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.