Psychology SL
Human relationships (option) — Paper 2
- 1.
A researcher proposes that people are more attracted to others who share similar attitudes and values, rather than those with opposing views. (a) Name the principle this describes. (b) Suggest one research method that could be used to test this idea, briefly justifying your choice. (c) State one factor other than similarity that research suggests also influences attraction.
[4 marks] · no calculator - 2.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “A researcher proposes that people are more attracted to others who share similar attitudes and values, rather than those with opposing views. (a) Name the principle this describes. (b) Suggest one research method that could be used to test this idea, briefly justifying your choice. (c) State one factor other than similarity that research suggests also influences attraction.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names the similarity principle/attraction (or a comparably named attitude-similarity theory of attraction).” Evaluate the response against the complete 4-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[4 marks] · no calculator - 3.
A longitudinal study follows 200 newly married couples for 10 years, recording relationship satisfaction and observing communication patterns during recorded arguments. Researchers find that couples showing high levels of contempt during arguments are more likely to divorce. (a) Identify the research method used. (b) State one strength of using a longitudinal design for this research question. (c) State one limitation of using a longitudinal design. (d) Explain why this study can identify contempt as a predictor of divorce but cannot alone establish that contempt causes divorce.
[5 marks] · no calculator - 4.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “A longitudinal study follows 200 newly married couples for 10 years, recording relationship satisfaction and observing communication patterns during recorded arguments. Researchers find that couples showing high levels of contempt during arguments are more likely to divorce. (a) Identify the research method used. (b) State one strength of using a longitudinal design for this research question. (c) State one limitation of using a longitudinal design. (d) Explain why this study can identify contempt as a predictor of divorce but cannot alone establish that contempt causes divorce.” Their response addresses only this point: “Identifies the method as a longitudinal, correlational, naturalistic observation-based study.” Evaluate the response against the complete 5-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[5 marks] · no calculator - 5.
A study on relationship maintenance identifies that couples who make a deliberate effort to interpret their partner's minor mistakes charitably (for example, 'they're just tired' rather than 'they don't care') tend to report higher long-term satisfaction. (a) Name the cognitive process being described. (b) Suggest one practical implication of this finding for relationship counselling.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 6.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “A study on relationship maintenance identifies that couples who make a deliberate effort to interpret their partner's minor mistakes charitably (for example, 'they're just tired' rather than 'they don't care') tend to report higher long-term satisfaction. (a) Name the cognitive process being described. (b) Suggest one practical implication of this finding for relationship counselling.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names a benign/charitable attribution style, attributing behaviour to external or situational rather than internal, negative causes.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 7.
Festinger, Schachter, and Back studied friendship formation among residents of a student apartment complex and found that residents were far more likely to become friends with people who lived in nearby apartments, especially next-door neighbours, than with people living further away, even within the same small building. (a) Name the factor in attraction this study demonstrates. (b) Explain the psychological mechanism proposed to explain why physical closeness increases liking.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 8.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Festinger, Schachter, and Back studied friendship formation among residents of a student apartment complex and found that residents were far more likely to become friends with people who lived in nearby apartments, especially next-door neighbours, than with people living further away, even within the same small building. (a) Name the factor in attraction this study demonstrates. (b) Explain the psychological mechanism proposed to explain why physical closeness increases liking.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names proximity (physical/functional distance) as the factor.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 9.
Murstein (1972) compared photographs of real engaged or steady couples with the same people randomly re-paired, and found that the real couples were rated as significantly more similar in physical attractiveness to each other than the random pairs were, even though people often say they would prefer the most attractive partner possible. (a) Name the hypothesis this finding supports. (b) Suggest one psychological reason people tend to end up with partners of a similar level of attractiveness to themselves, despite an initial preference for maximum attractiveness.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 10.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Murstein (1972) compared photographs of real engaged or steady couples with the same people randomly re-paired, and found that the real couples were rated as significantly more similar in physical attractiveness to each other than the random pairs were, even though people often say they would prefer the most attractive partner possible. (a) Name the hypothesis this finding supports. (b) Suggest one psychological reason people tend to end up with partners of a similar level of attractiveness to themselves, despite an initial preference for maximum attractiveness.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names the matching hypothesis.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 11.
According to social penetration theory, romantic partners become closer over time by gradually sharing increasingly personal information, moving from superficial topics (such as hobbies) towards deeper, more private ones (such as fears or past traumas), and this sharing is normally reciprocal between both partners. (a) Name the specific process being described. (b) Explain why reciprocity (both partners disclosing at a similar depth) is considered important for this process to successfully build intimacy.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 12.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “According to social penetration theory, romantic partners become closer over time by gradually sharing increasingly personal information, moving from superficial topics (such as hobbies) towards deeper, more private ones (such as fears or past traumas), and this sharing is normally reciprocal between both partners. (a) Name the specific process being described. (b) Explain why reciprocity (both partners disclosing at a similar depth) is considered important for this process to successfully build intimacy.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names self-disclosure (as described by social penetration theory).” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 13.
According to Sternberg's triangular theory of love, love is made up of three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment. A couple who feel deep emotional closeness and have decided to stay together long-term, but report that physical/romantic excitement has faded, would be described by Sternberg as experiencing which type of love? (a) Identify the type of love described. (b) Identify a different combination of the three components that would instead describe a whirlwind holiday romance expected to end when the holiday does.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 14.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “According to Sternberg's triangular theory of love, love is made up of three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment. A couple who feel deep emotional closeness and have decided to stay together long-term, but report that physical/romantic excitement has faded, would be described by Sternberg as experiencing which type of love? (a) Identify the type of love described. (b) Identify a different combination of the three components that would instead describe a whirlwind holiday romance expected to end when the holiday does.” Their response addresses only this point: “Identifies companionate love: high intimacy and high commitment, but low passion.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 15.
According to Duck's phase model of relationship dissolution, a partner first privately begins to feel dissatisfied and broods over the relationship's problems alone (the intra-psychic phase), before eventually confronting their partner directly about these problems. (a) Name the phase that would typically follow this direct confrontation between the partners. (b) Name a later phase in which the couple's shared social network becomes involved, and friends may be asked to take sides.
[2 marks] · no calculator - 16.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “According to Duck's phase model of relationship dissolution, a partner first privately begins to feel dissatisfied and broods over the relationship's problems alone (the intra-psychic phase), before eventually confronting their partner directly about these problems. (a) Name the phase that would typically follow this direct confrontation between the partners. (b) Name a later phase in which the couple's shared social network becomes involved, and friends may be asked to take sides.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names the dyadic phase, in which the partners discuss the relationship's problems directly with each other.” Evaluate the response against the complete 2-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[2 marks] · no calculator - 17.
According to equity theory, relationship satisfaction depends not simply on how many rewards a person receives from a relationship, but on whether the ratio of their own contributions (inputs) to rewards (outputs) feels fair compared with their partner's ratio. (a) Explain why a partner who contributes little but also receives little could still feel satisfied under equity theory. (b) Explain why a partner who receives a great deal, but contributes far less than their partner, might still feel dissatisfied (e.g., guilty) under equity theory.
[4 marks] · no calculator - 18.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “According to equity theory, relationship satisfaction depends not simply on how many rewards a person receives from a relationship, but on whether the ratio of their own contributions (inputs) to rewards (outputs) feels fair compared with their partner's ratio. (a) Explain why a partner who contributes little but also receives little could still feel satisfied under equity theory. (b) Explain why a partner who receives a great deal, but contributes far less than their partner, might still feel dissatisfied (e.g., guilty) under equity theory.” Their response addresses only this point: “Explains that equity theory judges fairness by the ratio of inputs to outputs, not the absolute amount, so two partners who both contribute little and receive little can still have matching, and therefore fair, ratios.” Evaluate the response against the complete 4-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[4 marks] · no calculator - 19.
Evolutionary psychologists propose that men and women differ, on average, in what they prioritise when selecting a long-term mate, because ancestrally, women faced greater biological costs from reproduction (pregnancy, childbirth, nursing) than men. (a) Name the theory that explains mate-preference differences in terms of these differing reproductive costs. (b) According to this theory, suggest one trait women might be predicted to prioritise in a long-term partner, and explain why.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 20.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Evolutionary psychologists propose that men and women differ, on average, in what they prioritise when selecting a long-term mate, because ancestrally, women faced greater biological costs from reproduction (pregnancy, childbirth, nursing) than men. (a) Name the theory that explains mate-preference differences in terms of these differing reproductive costs. (b) According to this theory, suggest one trait women might be predicted to prioritise in a long-term partner, and explain why.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names parental investment theory.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 21.
A couple in a long-distance relationship maintains daily contact through video calls and instant messaging, reporting that this helps them feel emotionally close despite being physically apart. However, one of them also reports feeling anxious checking the other's social media activity for signs of infidelity. (a) Explain one way communication technology can benefit the maintenance of a long-distance relationship. (b) Explain one way the same technology can create new sources of relationship strain that did not exist before its widespread use.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 22.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “A couple in a long-distance relationship maintains daily contact through video calls and instant messaging, reporting that this helps them feel emotionally close despite being physically apart. However, one of them also reports feeling anxious checking the other's social media activity for signs of infidelity. (a) Explain one way communication technology can benefit the maintenance of a long-distance relationship. (b) Explain one way the same technology can create new sources of relationship strain that did not exist before its widespread use.” Their response addresses only this point: “Explains that frequent video calls and messaging allow partners to maintain a sense of shared daily experience and emotional closeness, functioning as a substitute for the face-to-face contact they lack.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 23.
In some cultures with more collectivist values, marriages are traditionally arranged by families based on factors such as family compatibility and social standing, while in more individualist cultures, marriages are typically based on romantic love freely chosen by the two individuals. (a) Suggest one reason collectivist cultures might place less emphasis on romantic love as the basis for marriage compared with individualist cultures. (b) Explain why a psychologist should be cautious about concluding that romantic-love marriages are simply 'better' based on research conducted mainly in individualist Western cultures.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 24.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “In some cultures with more collectivist values, marriages are traditionally arranged by families based on factors such as family compatibility and social standing, while in more individualist cultures, marriages are typically based on romantic love freely chosen by the two individuals. (a) Suggest one reason collectivist cultures might place less emphasis on romantic love as the basis for marriage compared with individualist cultures. (b) Explain why a psychologist should be cautious about concluding that romantic-love marriages are simply 'better' based on research conducted mainly in individualist Western cultures.” Their response addresses only this point: “Suggests a valid reason, such as collectivist cultures prioritising the wellbeing, stability, and reputation of the wider family or group over the individual romantic preferences of the couple.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 25.
Hazan and Shaver proposed that the type of attachment an infant forms with their primary caregiver, as originally described by Ainsworth's research, predicts the style of romantic attachment that person tends to show as an adult. (a) State this general proposal in your own words. (b) Suggest one adult romantic relationship behaviour that might be predicted by an anxious/insecure infant attachment style.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 26.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Hazan and Shaver proposed that the type of attachment an infant forms with their primary caregiver, as originally described by Ainsworth's research, predicts the style of romantic attachment that person tends to show as an adult. (a) State this general proposal in your own words. (b) Suggest one adult romantic relationship behaviour that might be predicted by an anxious/insecure infant attachment style.” Their response addresses only this point: “States the continuity hypothesis: early infant attachment style shapes a working mental model of relationships that carries forward into, and influences, adult romantic attachment style.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 27.
A researcher studying relationship satisfaction asks couples to complete a questionnaire about how often they argue and how satisfied they are with their relationship, to be shown to the researcher only (not their partner). (a) Identify a potential weakness of using self-report questionnaires to study sensitive personal information like this. (b) Suggest one way the researcher could try to reduce this specific weakness.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 28.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “A researcher studying relationship satisfaction asks couples to complete a questionnaire about how often they argue and how satisfied they are with their relationship, to be shown to the researcher only (not their partner). (a) Identify a potential weakness of using self-report questionnaires to study sensitive personal information like this. (b) Suggest one way the researcher could try to reduce this specific weakness.” Their response addresses only this point: “Identifies social desirability bias: participants may under-report arguments or over-report satisfaction to present their relationship, or themselves, in a more favourable light.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator - 29.
Online dating platforms often use algorithms that match users based on stated preferences and behavioural data, rather than relationships forming through chance face-to-face encounters as they traditionally did. (a) Explain one way this could genuinely broaden a person's pool of potential partners compared with relying only on their existing social circle and physical location. (b) Suggest one limitation of relying on an algorithm's data-based matching to predict genuine long-term relationship compatibility.
[2 marks] · no calculator - 30.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Online dating platforms often use algorithms that match users based on stated preferences and behavioural data, rather than relationships forming through chance face-to-face encounters as they traditionally did. (a) Explain one way this could genuinely broaden a person's pool of potential partners compared with relying only on their existing social circle and physical location. (b) Suggest one limitation of relying on an algorithm's data-based matching to predict genuine long-term relationship compatibility.” Their response addresses only this point: “Explains that algorithmic matching removes the limits of proximity and existing social networks that traditionally constrained who a person was likely to meet, exposing them to a much larger and more diverse pool of potential partners.” Evaluate the response against the complete 2-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[2 marks] · no calculator