IB · PSYCH SL

Psychology SL

Sociocultural approach — Paper 1

Name: ____________________Date: October 2, 2026

1.
In a classic study, Tajfel randomly assigned participants to groups based on a trivial criterion (their preference for one painter's work over another), then found that participants still allocated more points to members of their own group than to the other group. (a) Name the theory this finding supports. (b) Explain, using this theory, why minimal group categorization alone is sufficient to produce in-group favouritism.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Names social identity theory.
- Explains that individuals derive part of their self-esteem from their group memberships (social identity), so favouring the in-group enhances their own sense of self-worth.
- Explains that mere categorization into any group, even an arbitrary or 'minimal' one, is enough to trigger a psychological distinction between 'us' and 'them', without any prior history, competition, or interaction between the groups.
Examiner tip: The 'minimal group paradigm' is powerful evidence specifically because the groups are trivial and arbitrary — it isolates categorization itself as the cause of in-group bias, ruling out competition or real conflict as necessary conditions.
2.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “In a classic study, Tajfel randomly assigned participants to groups based on a trivial criterion (their preference for one painter's work over another), then found that participants still allocated more points to members of their own group than to the other group. (a) Name the theory this finding supports. (b) Explain, using this theory, why minimal group categorization alone is sufficient to produce in-group favouritism.” Their response addresses only this point: “Names social identity theory.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Names social identity theory.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that individuals derive part of their self-esteem from their group memberships (social identity), so favouring the in-group enhances their own sense of self-worth.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that mere categorization into any group, even an arbitrary or 'minimal' one, is enough to trigger a psychological distinction between 'us' and 'them', without any prior history, competition, or interaction between the groups.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
3.
In Asch's classic conformity study, participants judged the length of lines after hearing confederates unanimously give an obviously incorrect answer. Many participants conformed to the incorrect majority at least once. (a) Distinguish between normative social influence and informational social influence as explanations for conformity. (b) State which type of social influence most likely explains conformity in the Asch study, and justify your answer.
[4 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Defines normative social influence as conforming to be liked or accepted by the group, and to avoid social rejection, even while privately disagreeing.
- Defines informational social influence as conforming because the group is believed to have more accurate or valid information than the individual, especially in ambiguous situations.
- States that normative social influence most likely explains conformity in the Asch study.
- Justifies this by noting that the line-length task was objectively unambiguous (the correct answer was visually obvious), so participants were unlikely to genuinely doubt their own perception; post-study interviews also showed many participants privately knew the majority was wrong but conformed anyway to avoid standing out.
Examiner tip: The key diagnostic question for distinguishing the two types of influence: was the task ambiguous (favouring informational influence) or unambiguous (favouring normative influence)? Asch's clear, simple line task points strongly to the normative explanation.
4.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “In Asch's classic conformity study, participants judged the length of lines after hearing confederates unanimously give an obviously incorrect answer. Many participants conformed to the incorrect majority at least once. (a) Distinguish between normative social influence and informational social influence as explanations for conformity. (b) State which type of social influence most likely explains conformity in the Asch study, and justify your answer.” Their response addresses only this point: “Defines normative social influence as conforming to be liked or accepted by the group, and to avoid social rejection, even while privately disagreeing.” Evaluate the response against the complete 4-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[4 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Defines normative social influence as conforming to be liked or accepted by the group, and to avoid social rejection, even while privately disagreeing.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Defines informational social influence as conforming because the group is believed to have more accurate or valid information than the individual, especially in ambiguous situations.
- Identifies the missing requirement: States that normative social influence most likely explains conformity in the Asch study.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Justifies this by noting that the line-length task was objectively unambiguous (the correct answer was visually obvious), so participants were unlikely to genuinely doubt their own perception; post-study interviews also showed many participants privately knew the majority was wrong but conformed anyway to avoid standing out.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
5.
Explain how illusory correlation can contribute to the formation of a stereotype, using the example of a person who meets two rude individuals from an unfamiliar ethnic group and subsequently believes that group is generally rude.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Defines illusory correlation as the perception of a relationship between two variables (group membership and rude behaviour) that is not actually statistically supported, or is far weaker than perceived.
- Explains that distinctive or unusual events (an unfamiliar group, rude behaviour) are more memorable and cognitively salient than ordinary ones, making the co-occurrence of the two distinctive features stand out disproportionately in memory.
- Explains that the person then overgeneralizes from this small, memorable, and non-representative sample (two individuals) to the entire group, forming a stereotype based on a statistically unjustified perceived correlation.
Examiner tip: Illusory correlation works through the general cognitive principle that distinctive information is disproportionately memorable — this is the same underlying mechanism studied in cognitive psychology's work on memory salience.
6.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Explain how illusory correlation can contribute to the formation of a stereotype, using the example of a person who meets two rude individuals from an unfamiliar ethnic group and subsequently believes that group is generally rude.” Their response addresses only this point: “Defines illusory correlation as the perception of a relationship between two variables (group membership and rude behaviour) that is not actually statistically supported, or is far weaker than perceived.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Defines illusory correlation as the perception of a relationship between two variables (group membership and rude behaviour) that is not actually statistically supported, or is far weaker than perceived.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that distinctive or unusual events (an unfamiliar group, rude behaviour) are more memorable and cognitively salient than ordinary ones, making the co-occurrence of the two distinctive features stand out disproportionately in memory.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that the person then overgeneralizes from this small, memorable, and non-representative sample (two individuals) to the entire group, forming a stereotype based on a statistically unjustified perceived correlation.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
7.
Distinguish between an individualist culture and a collectivist culture, and explain how this cultural dimension might influence whether a person attributes a colleague's success to personal ability or to the support of their team.
[4 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Defines an individualist culture as one that emphasizes personal autonomy, individual achievement, and self-reliance over group goals.
- Defines a collectivist culture as one that emphasizes group harmony, interdependence, and shared responsibility over individual distinction.
- Explains that a person from an individualist culture is more likely to attribute the colleague's success to personal ability or effort (a dispositional attribution).
- Explains that a person from a collectivist culture is more likely to attribute the same success to the support, cooperation, or contribution of the team (a situational/external attribution).
Examiner tip: Cultural dimensions research shows that even a fundamental cognitive process like causal attribution is not universal — it is shaped by the values a culture instills about where credit and responsibility should be assigned.
8.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Distinguish between an individualist culture and a collectivist culture, and explain how this cultural dimension might influence whether a person attributes a colleague's success to personal ability or to the support of their team.” Their response addresses only this point: “Defines an individualist culture as one that emphasizes personal autonomy, individual achievement, and self-reliance over group goals.” Evaluate the response against the complete 4-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[4 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Defines an individualist culture as one that emphasizes personal autonomy, individual achievement, and self-reliance over group goals.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Defines a collectivist culture as one that emphasizes group harmony, interdependence, and shared responsibility over individual distinction.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that a person from an individualist culture is more likely to attribute the colleague's success to personal ability or effort (a dispositional attribution).
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that a person from a collectivist culture is more likely to attribute the same success to the support, cooperation, or contribution of the team (a situational/external attribution).
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
9.
Using social learning theory, explain how a child might acquire an aggressive behaviour by observing a sibling being praised for acting aggressively toward a bully.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Explains that the child observes the sibling's aggressive behaviour (modelling) and its consequence (praise).
- Explains that the sibling being praised functions as vicarious reinforcement: the child does not need to personally experience a reward to learn that the behaviour is likely to be rewarded.
- Explains that the child is more likely to imitate the behaviour in future if they identify with the sibling (e.g., same sex, similar age) and if the model is seen as competent or high-status.
Examiner tip: Vicarious reinforcement is the key mechanism distinguishing social learning theory from direct operant conditioning — the observer learns from watching someone else be rewarded or punished, without experiencing the consequence themselves.
10.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Using social learning theory, explain how a child might acquire an aggressive behaviour by observing a sibling being praised for acting aggressively toward a bully.” Their response addresses only this point: “Explains that the child observes the sibling's aggressive behaviour (modelling) and its consequence (praise).” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Explains that the child observes the sibling's aggressive behaviour (modelling) and its consequence (praise).
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that the sibling being praised functions as vicarious reinforcement: the child does not need to personally experience a reward to learn that the behaviour is likely to be rewarded.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that the child is more likely to imitate the behaviour in future if they identify with the sibling (e.g., same sex, similar age) and if the model is seen as competent or high-status.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
11.
Distinguish between enculturation and acculturation, giving one example of each.
[2 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Defines enculturation as the process of learning and internalizing the norms, values, and behaviours of one's own original culture, typically starting in childhood. Gives a valid example, such as a child learning table manners expected within their own family's culture.
- Defines acculturation as the process of adapting to and adopting elements of a new, different culture, typically after migration or extended contact with that culture. Gives a valid example, such as an immigrant adopting the language or customs of their new host country.
Examiner tip: Enculturation happens within one's own original culture from birth, while acculturation involves contact with and adaptation to a second, different culture — the key distinguishing factor is whether a new culture is involved at all.
12.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Distinguish between enculturation and acculturation, giving one example of each.” Their response addresses only this point: “Defines enculturation as the process of learning and internalizing the norms, values, and behaviours of one's own original culture, typically starting in childhood. Gives a valid example, such as a child learning table manners expected within their own family's culture.” Evaluate the response against the complete 2-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[2 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Defines enculturation as the process of learning and internalizing the norms, values, and behaviours of one's own original culture, typically starting in childhood. Gives a valid example, such as a child learning table manners expected within their own family's culture.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Defines acculturation as the process of adapting to and adopting elements of a new, different culture, typically after migration or extended contact with that culture. Gives a valid example, such as an immigrant adopting the language or customs of their new host country.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
13.
Explain how social categorization (dividing people into 'us' and 'them' groups) can lead to discriminatory behaviour, even without any direct personal conflict between the groups involved.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Explains that social categorization automatically creates psychological distance between the in-group and out-group, even based on trivial or arbitrary distinctions.
- Explains that individuals seeking positive social identity are motivated to view their in-group favourably compared to the out-group (in-group favouritism/out-group derogation), sometimes at the out-group's expense.
- Explains that this motivated bias can translate into discriminatory behaviour, such as unequal resource allocation, even in the complete absence of real competition, prior conflict, or personal interaction between the two groups (as shown in minimal group studies).
Examiner tip: Connect this directly to Tajfel's minimal group studies as concrete supporting evidence — the fact that discrimination appears even in artificially created, meaningless groups is the strongest evidence that categorization alone is sufficient.
14.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Explain how social categorization (dividing people into 'us' and 'them' groups) can lead to discriminatory behaviour, even without any direct personal conflict between the groups involved.” Their response addresses only this point: “Explains that social categorization automatically creates psychological distance between the in-group and out-group, even based on trivial or arbitrary distinctions.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Explains that social categorization automatically creates psychological distance between the in-group and out-group, even based on trivial or arbitrary distinctions.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that individuals seeking positive social identity are motivated to view their in-group favourably compared to the out-group (in-group favouritism/out-group derogation), sometimes at the out-group's expense.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that this motivated bias can translate into discriminatory behaviour, such as unequal resource allocation, even in the complete absence of real competition, prior conflict, or personal interaction between the two groups (as shown in minimal group studies).
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
15.
Explain one strategy, based on social identity theory, that could be used to reduce discrimination between two rival groups, such as creating a superordinate (shared, overarching) identity that includes members of both groups.
[2 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Explains that creating a shared superordinate identity (e.g., both rival groups being redefined as members of one larger team or organization) changes the relevant social categorization from 'us versus them' to a single, inclusive 'us'.
- Explains that since social identity theory predicts favouritism is directed toward whichever group currently defines the in-group, redrawing that boundary to include former out-group members should reduce bias against them.
Examiner tip: This 'common in-group identity' strategy directly follows from the theory's own logic: if categorization itself causes bias, then recategorization (redrawing group boundaries) is a logical, theory-consistent intervention.
16.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Explain one strategy, based on social identity theory, that could be used to reduce discrimination between two rival groups, such as creating a superordinate (shared, overarching) identity that includes members of both groups.” Their response addresses only this point: “Explains that creating a shared superordinate identity (e.g., both rival groups being redefined as members of one larger team or organization) changes the relevant social categorization from 'us versus them' to a single, inclusive 'us'.” Evaluate the response against the complete 2-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[2 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Explains that creating a shared superordinate identity (e.g., both rival groups being redefined as members of one larger team or organization) changes the relevant social categorization from 'us versus them' to a single, inclusive 'us'.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that since social identity theory predicts favouritism is directed toward whichever group currently defines the in-group, redrawing that boundary to include former out-group members should reduce bias against them.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
17.
A researcher wants to compare levels of conformity in two different countries. State one strength and one limitation of using a cross-cultural study to investigate this research question.
[2 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- States a valid strength, such as a cross-cultural study allowing researchers to identify whether a psychological phenomenon (like conformity) is universal or culturally variable, which a single-culture study cannot determine.
- States a valid limitation, such as the difficulty of ensuring the research materials, instructions, and measures have genuinely equivalent meaning when translated or adapted across different languages and cultural contexts, threatening the validity of any comparison.
Examiner tip: The core challenge in cross-cultural research is always equivalence: ensuring a translated or adapted measure captures the exact same underlying construct across cultures, not a culturally shifted version of it.
18.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “A researcher wants to compare levels of conformity in two different countries. State one strength and one limitation of using a cross-cultural study to investigate this research question.” Their response addresses only this point: “States a valid strength, such as a cross-cultural study allowing researchers to identify whether a psychological phenomenon (like conformity) is universal or culturally variable, which a single-culture study cannot determine.” Evaluate the response against the complete 2-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[2 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: States a valid strength, such as a cross-cultural study allowing researchers to identify whether a psychological phenomenon (like conformity) is universal or culturally variable, which a single-culture study cannot determine.
- Identifies the missing requirement: States a valid limitation, such as the difficulty of ensuring the research materials, instructions, and measures have genuinely equivalent meaning when translated or adapted across different languages and cultural contexts, threatening the validity of any comparison.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
19.
Explain how a cultural dimension such as high power distance might influence behaviour in a school classroom.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Defines high power distance as a cultural acceptance of unequal distribution of power and respect for authority.
- Explains that students may be less likely to question or challenge the teacher and more likely to wait to be addressed.
- Notes that teachers in such cultures may be seen as the sole source of knowledge, shaping lecture-style teaching.
Examiner tip: Link the dimension to a concrete, observable behaviour rather than describing the dimension in the abstract.
20.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Explain how a cultural dimension such as high power distance might influence behaviour in a school classroom.” Their response addresses only this point: “Defines high power distance as a cultural acceptance of unequal distribution of power and respect for authority.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Defines high power distance as a cultural acceptance of unequal distribution of power and respect for authority.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that students may be less likely to question or challenge the teacher and more likely to wait to be addressed.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Notes that teachers in such cultures may be seen as the sole source of knowledge, shaping lecture-style teaching.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
21.
Explain what is meant by stereotype threat and how it might affect a student's exam performance.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Defines stereotype threat as the anxiety of confirming a negative stereotype about one's group.
- Explains that the worry consumes cognitive resources such as attention and working memory during the task.
- Explains that this can lower performance, which may then appear to confirm the stereotype.
Examiner tip: Stereotype threat is about the burden of a stereotype on performance, not the stereotype being true.
22.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Explain what is meant by stereotype threat and how it might affect a student's exam performance.” Their response addresses only this point: “Defines stereotype threat as the anxiety of confirming a negative stereotype about one's group.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Defines stereotype threat as the anxiety of confirming a negative stereotype about one's group.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that the worry consumes cognitive resources such as attention and working memory during the task.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that this can lower performance, which may then appear to confirm the stereotype.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
23.
Evaluate the Asch conformity studies with reference to one methodological limitation.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Outlines the finding that many participants conformed at least once to an obviously incorrect majority.
- Identifies a limitation such as low ecological validity (an artificial line task with strangers) or a culturally and historically narrow sample (US male students).
- Evaluates the implication for generalizing the findings to real-life conformity.
Examiner tip: An evaluation links the limitation to what it means for the conclusions, not just names it.
24.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Evaluate the Asch conformity studies with reference to one methodological limitation.” Their response addresses only this point: “Outlines the finding that many participants conformed at least once to an obviously incorrect majority.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Outlines the finding that many participants conformed at least once to an obviously incorrect majority.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Identifies a limitation such as low ecological validity (an artificial line task with strangers) or a culturally and historically narrow sample (US male students).
- Identifies the missing requirement: Evaluates the implication for generalizing the findings to real-life conformity.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
25.
Outline one ethical concern raised by Bandura's Bobo doll studies and explain why it is relevant to the participants.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Identifies a concern such as exposing young children to aggressive models and possibly encouraging aggressive behaviour.
- Explains that children cannot give informed consent themselves and may be more vulnerable to harm.
- Notes that protection from harm and debriefing are especially important for such participants.
Examiner tip: Link each ethical concern to the vulnerability of the particular participants.
26.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Outline one ethical concern raised by Bandura's Bobo doll studies and explain why it is relevant to the participants.” Their response addresses only this point: “Identifies a concern such as exposing young children to aggressive models and possibly encouraging aggressive behaviour.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Identifies a concern such as exposing young children to aggressive models and possibly encouraging aggressive behaviour.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that children cannot give informed consent themselves and may be more vulnerable to harm.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Notes that protection from harm and debriefing are especially important for such participants.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
27.
Explain what is meant by display rules and how they show that cultural context affects the expression of emotion.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Defines display rules as culturally learned norms about when, where and how emotions may be shown.
- Gives an example, such as some cultures encouraging open emotional expression and others valuing restraint in public.
- Explains that this means similar inner feelings can be expressed differently, so behaviour must be interpreted in context.
Examiner tip: Display rules concern expression, not the underlying emotion itself.
28.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Explain what is meant by display rules and how they show that cultural context affects the expression of emotion.” Their response addresses only this point: “Defines display rules as culturally learned norms about when, where and how emotions may be shown.” Evaluate the response against the complete 3-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[3 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: Defines display rules as culturally learned norms about when, where and how emotions may be shown.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Gives an example, such as some cultures encouraging open emotional expression and others valuing restraint in public.
- Identifies the missing requirement: Explains that this means similar inner feelings can be expressed differently, so behaviour must be interpreted in context.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.
29.
Distinguish between integration and assimilation as acculturation strategies, giving a brief example of each.
[2 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- States that integration involves keeping aspects of one's original culture while also adopting aspects of the new culture, e.g. speaking both languages.
- States that assimilation involves giving up the original culture in favour of adopting the dominant culture, e.g. abandoning home traditions.
Examiner tip: The key distinction is whether the original culture is retained alongside the new one.
30.
Marking analysis: A learner attempts the following task: “Distinguish between integration and assimilation as acculturation strategies, giving a brief example of each.” Their response addresses only this point: “States that integration involves keeping aspects of one's original culture while also adopting aspects of the new culture, e.g. speaking both languages.” Evaluate the response against the complete 2-mark task. Identify what earns credit and state every additional requirement needed for full marks.
[2 marks] · no calculator
Marking points
- Recognises credit for the stated point: States that integration involves keeping aspects of one's original culture while also adopting aspects of the new culture, e.g. speaking both languages.
- Identifies the missing requirement: States that assimilation involves giving up the original culture in favour of adopting the dominant culture, e.g. abandoning home traditions.
Examiner tip: Treat each marking point as a separate requirement. Do not award the same idea twice, and do not infer work the learner did not show.